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Developmental Psychology - the scientific study of how and why people change, and how and why they remain the same;

Aggression


Instrumental aggression - aggressive acts intended to achieve some desired goal


Hostile aggression - aggressive acts intended to harm someone


- early aggression is mainly instrumental

- hostile aggression in 3-year-olds is predictive of levels of aggression in adolescence

- hostile aggression gradually increases in frequency after age 4

- aggressive acts are less indiscriminate


Relational (Indirect/Verbal) aggression - aggressive behavior that takes the form of social rejection, manipulation and/or insults

- more common in girls

Reactive aggression - angry retaliation for some intentional or accidental act by another


Bullying aggression - unprovoked physical or verbal attacks on another person


Who are the Victims?

Passive victims - withdrawn and submissive

- non-assertive

- reward attackers with signs of distress

- acquiesce to aggressors' demands

- refrain from retaliation


Aggressive victims - overreactive

- poorly controlled emotional states

- externalizing behaviors


Ladd & Ladd ( 1998) - Peer victimization in kindergarten

- 103 boys, 94 girls

- diverse socioeconomic (SE) backgrounds

- from 3 school systems

- children & caregivers filmed in 5 interactions

e.g., discussing a fun experience, parent telling a baby story

- each interaction about 5 minutes


- rated for intrusiveness: negating, changing, interrupting

demandingness: orders

responsivity: contingent?


Ratings of victimization - self-report

Aggression with peers - teachers' reports


Results:

Parental intrusive demandingness

- associated with peer victimization in boys and girls

Speculations:

- little opportunity to control or influence social interaction

- fosters passive orientation

- restricted autonomy


Intense closeness (overprotectiveness?)

- associated with peer victimization in boys

Speculations:

- encourages passive - dependent behaviors?

- less likely to learn confrontational skills

Responsiveness

- associated with lower peer victimization

Speculations:

- experience control & mastery of social events

- develop secure emotional states


Note: - all three measures accounted for unique variance, i.e., they contributed separately to victimization


- are they "causes" of victimization?

OR

- are they differential parent responses to risky child behaviors or temperaments?


Altruism

- selfless concern for the welfare of others

- leading to prosocial behavior: actions such as sharing, cooperating, helping or sympathizing that benefit others


Eisenberg's Levels of Prosocial Moral Reasoning

Hedonistic - Preschool, early elementary

- one's own needs

Needs oriented - Elementary

- help but little sympathy

Approval oriented - Elementary, some high school

- stereotyped images of good and bad

Empathetic - Older elementary, high school

- sympathetic feelings

Internalized values - Some high school

- justification based on internalized norms


Encouraging Empathetic Reactions

(Schulman and Mekler, 1986)


1. Foster perspective-taking and empathy.


2. Model empathy and communicate that empathy is valued.


3. Expect empathic behavior, reinforce it, and explain how.


4. Help children deal with other people.


5. Explain positive consequences of empathy.


WWII Rescuers of Jews


Parents stressed:

- generosity and helpfulness to all

- all humans have a right to life


Reasons given for helping:

- sympathy and caring or compassion


­SOCIAL REVERSAL OF SEXBIASED AGGRESSION AND DOMINANCE IN A
CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION CARETAKERS SOUTHWEST LTD SCOPE
CHANGES IN AND CORRELATES OF THE TYPES OF AGGRESSION


Tags: aggression instrumental, self-report aggression, aggression, instrumental, achieve, intended, aggressive