UTILIZING TREE CROPS TO MITIGATE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS THE

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The role of Agroforestry in mitigating climate change in southern Africa

Utilizing tree crops to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions: the case of southern Africa with chronic food insecurity


S.A. Mng’omba, F.K. Akinnifesi, S. Chakeredza, G. Sileshi, O.C. Ajayi and BI Nyoka


World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), P.O. Box 30798, Lilongwe 3, Malawi

Email: [email protected]


Global contribution of agriculture to greenhouse gas (GHG) emission has been estimated to be around 20% for carbon dioxide, 50% for methane and 70% for nitrous oxide. The GHG are emitted from domestic livestock (methane and nitrous oxide), rice cultivation (methane), burning (methane, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and oxides of nitrogen) and agricultural soils (methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide). Smallholder farmers of southern Africa rely on agriculture for their livelihoods, but food production is often inadequate. The use of fossil fuels contributes huge amounts of GHG into atmosphere, but mitigation of GHG emissions due to agriculture is comparatively cost-effective. Fossil fuel substitution by bio-fuels has been recognised as viable mitigation. For southern Africa with chronic food insecurity, bio-fuel research emphasis should be on alternative tree crops adapted to marginal lands rather than field crops such as maize. Planting trees, fruit and fodder trees could improve food security and creates a carbon sink. The use of rapid digestible animal feeds reduces the passage time of food in the digestive system and hence reduces methane production. Perennial tree crops enable to achieve carbon credits. In this paper we present the knowledge and research challenges on the use of tree crops to reduce GHG emissions with southern Africa as a main focus.



Key words: Agriculture, greenhouse gas, crop yield, livelihoods






Introduction

Agriculture dominates the main activities of many countries of southern Africa. This is an indication that livelihoods of many people of southern Africa depend on agriculture. For instance, Malawi’s economy depends on agriculture, a main source of foreign income. However, there is low crop production and this has crippled the livelihoods of many people. There are also many reasons for the poor crop production. Unfavourable change in climatic condition has been one major cause of crop failure. Such unfavourable climatic changes to agriculture would remain a major concern despite availability of farm inputs. At national level or let alone at farmer level, it would be difficult to contain the changes in climate. This would require collective efforts.

In the wake of unfavourable climate changes, crop production has been threatened and this adversely affects the livelihoods of many people in the poor countries. Central to this climate change is the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) into atmosphere. The GHG includes carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and oxides of nitrogen. A balanced level of these GHGs in atmosphere is beneficial to human beings. However, a high accumulation of GHGs in atmosphere would result in unfavourable weather conditions such as a rise in high temperature, floods and drought among many others. This would adversely affect food production, especially in countries with fragile economy.

Comparatively, the use of fossil fuels contributes huge amounts of GHG emissions into atmosphere, but mitigation of GHG emissions due to agriculture is cost-effective compared to emissions from fossil fuels. Generally, plants have been recognised as fossil fuel substitution (bio-fuels) and sinks of GHG. In southern Africa and other countries or regions, trees (such as Jatropha curcas) and field crops are being exploited as sources of bio-fuels. This has been taken as a way of climate change mitigation. However, southern Africa has to make a judicious selection of climate change mitigation measures that would not impinge on food availability. This is because food production has already been low and there are also seasonal food shortages in the region. Land holding size, especially arable land for agriculture has been a limiting factor to crop production. It is envisage that climate change will impose an enormous constraint to crop production and adversely affect the economic growth of southern Africa. While it is clear that issues of climate change need urgent attention, mitigation measures must be tackled with food security consideration.

Greenhouse gas emissions

The contribution of agriculture to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has been estimated to be low (20% for carbon dioxide, 50% for methane and 70% for nitrous oxide) compared to emissions from fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide has been a major player in climate change. Major sources of GHGs from agriculture are domestic livestock (methane and nitrous oxide), rice cultivation (methane), burning (methane, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and oxides of nitrogen) and agricultural soils (methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide). Carbon dioxide has been single out as a highest greenhouse gas being emitted to atmosphere from agriculture.


Incidences of climate change

Greenhouse gas emission into the atmosphere will result in droughts and rise in temperatures. These are examples of catastrophes that human beings in southern Africa have already experienced. For instance, in Malawi, El Nino and La Nina global phenomena already caused floods and droughts. There were severe droughts in 1991/92 and 1994/95 growing seasons and floods in 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 rainy seasons. Landslides occurred in 1992/93 rainy season due to prolonged torrential rains in southern parts of Malawi. They caused loss of lives and damage to socio-economic structures in Phalombe district. These are some catastrophic examples of climate change. This indicates that if greenhouse gas emission is left unabated, it will cause numerous catastrophes to the lives of people.


Mitigation

The reduction of emissions of GHGs into atmosphere and enhancement of carbon sinks provide both opportunities and challenges for the socio-economic development of any country. Therefore, each country must take a key role towards reduction of GHGs into atmosphere irrespective of its socio-economic status and contribution to GHG emissions. It is envisaged that climate change will have an adverse effect on countries with fragile or poor economy. There is a need to exploit available opportunities by using appropriate technologies in order to effective mitigate GHG emissions. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the ultimate objective is to ‘stabilize concentration of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere in such a way that the level would not be dangerous to cause anthropogenic interference with the climate system’.

Bio-fuels

Production of potential tree crops for bio-diesel has been promoted in some countries of southern Africa by both private and non-governmental organisations, and other development agencies. J. curcas has been one such tree promoted in southern Africa and many other countries for bio-fuel production. However, there is little information or research on its viability or cost-benefit for farm production although it might have ecological advantages. It is believed that J. curcas is less expensive to produce than other energy crops such as rapeseed and soybeans (Tomomatsu and Swallow, 2007). It is believed that plantation of J. curcas is expected to reduce poverty and improve the livelihoods of people in the rural communities as a source of income (http://www.unctad.org). However, local communities might not achieve the desired rural economic benefits and this could be due to competition with larger plantations unless they operate as farmer groups and are able to operate oil extraction by themselves (Tomomatsu and Swallow, 2007). In view of this, it would important to assess the benefits that smallholder farmers will achieve by investing in J. curcus plantation compared to other alternatives. At the same time, it is important to consider issues of food security.


Cost-benefits

Cultivation of J. curcas must be based on the cost-benefit since there are no convincing studies to indicate its profitability. Furthermore, there are no data to compare its profitability to petroleum products, food or other cash crops. It is anticipated that smallholder farmers could realize profits if they will be involved in both primary (oil extraction) and secondary processing (transesterification). Data in Table 1 indicate that investing in mango production is more profitable than J. curcas production. The revenues derived from irrigated J. curcas compare well with mango produced under rainfed condition. This suggests that smallholder farmers are better off by investing in some fruit tree production. However, cashew nut and coconut production had lower revenue per unit land. Obviously, if smallholder farmers are to extract the oil and do transesterification on the farm the revenues per unit land would be high, but the intricacies in these technologies might not be in their favour.



TABLE 1 Cost -benefit analysis adapted from Tomomatsu and Swallow (2007)


Crop

Revenue per acre (US$)*

Jatropha (rainfed)

Jatropha (irrigated)

Mango

Cashew

Coconuts

150 -180

320-384

347

145

55

* Production costs are not included in all calculations


In view, that there are still so many gaps on cost-benefits of J. curcas, it is perhaps important to confine its cultivation to marginal lands. The advantages lie in the fact that it is drought tolerant and there are indications that J. curcas can be grown on marginal lands.


Intercropping

If J. curcas trees are to be grown on smallholder farmers’ arable land, there must be studies to investigate different intercropping systems in order to maximise land productivity. This is due to limitation of land holding sizes per household and food security problem facing many countries of southern Africa. For instance, the growing fruit trees (mango, cashew nut etc.) or other field crops with J. curcas. There is also a need to select superior germplasm since there is a wide range of genetic variation within J. curcas tree provenances for southern Africa. Apart from profitability comparisons of growing J. curcas to other crops such as fruit trees, potato, cassava and many others, other environmental benefits must also be taken into account (Tomomatsu and Swallow, 2007). In southern Africa, it might be ideal to promote Jatropha plantation on estate farms, but not on smallholder farmers’ arable land.


Food crops

Many countries of southern Africa are experiencing food shortage and chronic malnutrition. This is largely due to erratic rainfall attributed to an impact of climate change, and also due to inadequate farm inputs. The increase in human population is exerting an enormous pressure on arable land per household and this does not give small holder farmers a chance to fallow the land. This has contributed to soil infertility. Consequently, crop failure such maize, a staple food for many people, has been rampart in southern Africa. The use of food crops such as maize, legumes and sugarcane to produce bio-fuels will definitely worsen food insecurity problem. Some legumes, maize and sugarcane have been processed into ethanol, but this would impinge on food security of many people of southern Africa. Therefore, technologies that spare the use of food crops in climate change mitigation would ensure food security. This is because a shift by smallholder farmers from food crop production to Jatropha is likely to bring increase in food prices as a result of reduction in food supply.


Utilization of marginal lands

The use of bio-fuels has been recognised as a measure to reduce huge amounts of GHG emitted to atmosphere due to the use of fossil fuels. As southern Africa is exploiting trees as potential sources of bio-fuels, it is important to consider issues of food security in the wake of limitation in arable land availability. The use of arable land for production of tree crops such as J. curcas for bio-fuels would reduce the cultivable land for food crops. Therefore, the use of marginal lands would be suitable for the production of such potential bio-fuel trees to avoid competition.


Fodder for livestock

The use of rapid digestible fodder crops will reduce methane production since this limits enteric fermentation in the alimentary canal of an animal (Moeletsi, 2007). However, this has to consider its impact on ruminants as they regurgitate to obtain more nutrients. More research is needed to exploit this avenue except for ruminant animals. The use of fodder trees/shrubs would support livestock industry and hence provide the needed proteins to the humans.


Fruit trees

Generally, fruit trees are replaced or cut down after several years. Therefore, fruit trees could provide a carbon sink, and hence a good mitigation measure. In some instances, fruit trees are left to grow for twenty years or more with little or no major reduction in fruit yield. The data in Table 1 show that some fruit trees could be profitable and also important sources of food to many people. The growing of fruit trees could ensure food security and income generation to many households in the southern Africa. It would be advisable for small holder farmers to invest in fruit trees so as to achieve food security and income generation.


Wetlands

Wetlands are important natural resources although they are sources of natural methane. Wetlands are ecosystems which support lives of many plants and animals. They also act as natural water purification system, and hence they provide the much needed biological, ecological and socio-economic benefits to human beings. With respect to methane production due to wetlands which could also be good areas for rice cultivation, it is important that management of wetlands must be done in a way that it minimises GHG emissions.


Conclusions

Countries in southern Africa need judicious technologies or measures that would mitigate GHG emissions without impinging on food production. Mitigation measures that exploit trees as alternative sources of bio-fuels must be supported as long as they do not compromise on food security. It could be advisable for small holder farmers to commit the marginal land to Bio-fuel tree production and food crops to arable land. Non-food crops such as J. curcas should be used for bio-fuels, but not food crops. More research work is needed to establish profitability of growing Jatropha and the impact of any proposed mitigation technologies on food production.


References

Caelho ST,. 2005. Biofuels: Advantages and Trade Barriers. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Available at: http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted20051_en.pdf. Access 10 July 2008.


Moeletsi ME., 2007. Agricultural contributions to, and mitigation of, greenhouse gas emissions. Proceedings of soil science society of South Africa, South African Society of Crop Production and Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences Combined Congress. 22-25 January, Badplaas.

Tomomatsu Y and Swallow B. 2007. Jatropha curcus biodiesel production in Kenya. Economics and potential value chain development for smallholder farmers. WP 54. Nairobi. World Agroforestry Centre, 33 pg.

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